Comparative History of Commerce and Industry Sector

Question: Discuss about the Comparative History of Commerce and Industry Sector. Answer: Introduction: Zen Buddhism has been an integral part of Japanese art and culture from the time of its arrival in Japan in the thirteenth century. Despite of not being much spiritual in the modern times, Zen Buddhism has kept influencing the art and architecture of Japanese people. However, Zen traces its origin back in India; it was formalized in China and was transmitted to Japan in the thirteenth century (Ingram 2015). In Kamakura period (1185-1333), the development of Japanese Buddhism has evolved in a new level and it is also called Kamakura Buddhism. This form of religion refers to various innovative Buddhist movements that come into sight during the time, especially Zen. Zen Buddhism eventually became one of the dominant schools of Buddhism in Japan. Even in the modern day Japan, the unique influence still keeps persuading and that makes Japan an exceptional country in spite its prosperity in the industrialized economy. According to Andreeva 2016, Zen Buddhism consists of two schools of practice, the Rinzai School, originated by Eisai (or Yosai, 1141-1215) and others, and the Soto School, founded by Dogen (1200-1253). The emphasis of Zen Buddhism was entirely on simplicity and the significance of the natural world created a distinguishing aesthetic, expressed by two terms wabi and sabi. The preliminary reliance of this school of philosophy was derived from the ancient Buddhist text like Mahaprajnaparamita-Sutra, which stresses on the doctrine of blankness and the lankavatara-Sutra, which deals with the doctrine of consciousness and the Avatamsaka-Sutra, which consist of the teachings of Lord Buddha. Those concepts have been analysed by several Zen masters in Japan, who also had developed many unique practices to Zen. The amorphous concepts are used to convey a sense of melancholy, naturalness, rusticity, loneliness and age. The disciplinary practice of Zen Buddhism has created a huge impact on the J apanese people. The cool and calm mediating Zen master, the informal meditation hall and other practices that created an ideal, influenced their everyday life. Zen introduced not only a new religious practice to Japan, but also calligraphy, philosophical practice and ink paintings to the culture. Lopez and Donald 2015 states that, the monochrome ink painting is the most closely related art form with Zen Buddhism. Generally, the Zen monks were the first Japanese artists to work with this medium and they expressed their religious views and passion through a quick and reminiscent manner. Their favoured subjects to study were, Zen patriarchs and progressive individuals, but soon the artists moved to several secular themes like flowering plums, birds, bamboo and the birds, which were endowed with intellectual symbolism in China. The huge range of thematic expressions broadened to embrace the landscapes and the literary figures and the style of painting became more significant than personal expression. Previously, the practices of Buddhism was restricted the privileged class of the monks, artisans, scholars, nobles, who had mastered the rituals and the complicated philosophy of Buddhism. However, in the Kamakura period (1185-1333), the practice took a drastic change in the field of religion and it became the religion of masses for the very first time. There was a political change at that time in Japan, while the old court fell to a fresh military government and the growing conflict and chaos led to the disenchantment and a revival of faith. During this divergent time, Buddhist leaders like Shinran, Eisai, and Honen emerged and developed their concept of salvation (Sanford 2014). This also gave rise to the schools of philosophy, which also influenced the art and architecture practice in Japan. The concept of Zen Buddhism, connecting to the spiritual rather than the physical was very much influencing in the fine art practices in the Kamakura period (Aitken 2015). The paintings from this period were highly influence by the practices of previous Heian Period. The religious paintings were marked with a sense of vivacity and immediacy. The Amidst cults emphasized devotion to the specific figures, who were initially considered subsidiary all over the pure Buddhist collection of gods. For instance, Jizo Bosatsu, the lord Buddha portrayed in the appearance of a young monk, who was considered as a defender of children and women and as an individual send off on a particular mission of kindness to soreness being entangled in the troubles of their different life states. The popularity of Amidism encouraged the conception of richly regarded religious cosmologies in painting representing the six dominions of existence. The paintings like Nika Byakudo which is a white trail to the wester n heaven across two rivers, shoed both the complexities faced in the journey of a believer to the western paradise and at the central position, the Jizo empathetically shielding those, who are in need. Similarly, the raigo paintings featured the interpretations of Amidst culture as well. The religious fundamentals made extensive use of the descriptive scroll design. Paintings were also used to decorate the fusuma (sliding doors) and byobu (folding screens) (Munsterberg 2015). In addition to it, a new form of painting evolved in this aura named emaki format of painting. This form consists of long illustrated hand scrolls. The major brushworks, affluent palette, generous portrayal of the miscellaneous details of contemporary survival were the essential characteristics of the paintings of the Kamakura age, but in a more reflective spiritual sense. Those are the illustrated evidences of the Japanese fondness for basing the sacred practice in the easily accessible appearance of daily liv ing. While several form of paintings continued to grow throughout Kamakura period, the sculpture was the most popular form of art so far. This period is extensively considered as a renaissance age in the Japanese sculpture, guided by the Buddhist Kei School. As a result of the Gempei War, there was a huge loss in the religious sculptures. The Kei family created the most noteworthy works in this period, in the thirteenth century. The Kamakura period sculpture was inspired by both the wonderful idealism of the Nara period and the Chinese Song Dynasty sculpture. In depicting the huge range of divine concern, Kamakura figures responded to the religious ambiance of the period. The figure by Kosho of Kuya, the rough aged mendicant, who supported the constant repetition of the nembutsu prayer, was portrayed practically but the grace message of the cord of little Amida sculptures budding from the mouth an accurate depiction of his teaching. The artisans of this era succeeded the method of yosegi -zukuri (woodblock construction) and developed a sculptural style consists of solidity, pragmatism and depiction of emotion and movement (Covaci 2016). The works were very much influenced by the masterpiece of the Nara period and the Chinese song dynasty sculptures. The sculptures were seen with wonderfully refined hint of the shielding and warm existence of the Amida. The surface of the figure was entirely decorated with the kirikane (gold leaf pattern cuttings). The portrait sculpture of Muchaku conveys a firm determination and realism; there was also a subtle touch of fleshiness around the eyes, which mentions a little humour. Sanford 2014 states that, the finest one of all the sculptures of the Kamakura age is a flawless combination of carefully skilled and accumulated parts. The white wood was mainly the means of preference. The joined block technique was utilized in the sculptures with greater frequency than the preceding periods. Kaikei was a famous sculpture of Kamakura period, who was a collaborator of Unkei and spiritual believer of Pure Land sect of Buddhism. He worked closely with Chogen, a priest,on the recreation of the Todai ji temple in Nara. Most of his sculptures were characterised by the extensively finished surface and rich decoration with pigments and gold was the noteworthy trait of those. The most significant work of Kaikei is the Amitabha Triad of Ono Jodo ji (1195). The religious evolvement also influenced the architecture of this age, though the protection and the defence became the first priority because of the Genpei War happened before. The teahouses, small rooms held by pillars, became popular in this age as well (Yamashita 2016). However, the famous built of this aura was the Sanju Sangendo Hall, a long structural design consisting of thirty-three walls. The name of the temple suggests a hall with thirty three spaces between columns. The temple caught fire in 1248 and was restored in 1266. The temple consists of thousand big statues on the lest and the main deity statue stands at the ride side, comprise of ten rows and 50 columns. The religious architecture of the period was a blend of Chinese and Japanese influence as the religion was initiated from China. The Buddhist art form followed the believers as the religion spread and got adapted and developed in each host country (Kitagawa and Joseph 2013). To conclude, it can be said that it is feasible to draw a lineage of contemporary term in the Kamakura period. In Japan Buddhism played a great role to give birth to a fresh sense of value not only on the population, but also on the art forms, culture and the architecture. Reference List Aitken, Robert.Taking the path of Zen. North Point Press, 2015. Andreeva, Anna. "Yoshihiro Nikaido: Asian Folk Religion and Cultural Interaction."Entangled Religions3 (2016). Covaci, Ive.Kamakura: Realism and Spirituality in the Sculpture of Japan. Yale University Press, 2016. Green, Ronald S. "A Cultural History of Japanese Buddhism."Japanese Journal of Religious Studies42, no. 2 (2015): 381. Ingram, Paul O. "Listening to Shin Buddhism: Starting Points of Modern Dialogue. Edited by Michael Pye, with the assistance of the Eastern Buddhist Society. 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