Saturday, March 21, 2020
A Guide to Lexical Verbs
A Guide to Lexical Verbs In English grammar, a lexical verbà is theà main verbà in a sentence. Lexical verbs- also called full verbs- convey theà semantic (or lexical) meaningà in a sentence, such as I ran fast or I ate the entire hamburger. Not surprisingly, the great majority of verbs in English are lexical verbs, which are those that are not auxiliaryà (orà helping)à verbs. Lexical vs. Auxiliary Verbs Lexical verbs are the doing verbs, while auxiliary verbs are their helpers, asà eNotesà explains: Lexical verbs indicate the main action taking place in any sentence and therefore the intention of the sentence becomes clear; whereas, auxiliary verbs have a more subtle function because they often complete a sentence without the reader being aware how they contribute to [its] structure. An auxiliary verb determines theà mood,à tense,à voice,à orà aspectà of another verb in a verb phrase. Put another way, aà helping verb comes before theà main (lexical) verb in aà sentence. Together, they form aà verb phrase. In English, the auxiliary verbs are: Is, am, are, was, wereBe, being, beenHas,à have,à hadDo, does, didWill, shall, should, wouldCan, couldMay, might, must Lexical verbs constitute all the rest. Lexical verbs can be grouped according to four types:à transitive and intransitive,à linking,à dynamicà andà static (or stative),à as well asà regularà andà irregular. Transitive and Intransitive Aà transitive lexical verb expresses action and needs a direct object to receive that action, notes Dictionary.com, which gives the sentenceà ââ¬Å"Aliceà seesà the candleâ⬠as an example. In the sentence, seesà is the lexical verb and is transitive, whileà the candleà is the direct object because it receives the action of the lexical verb sees. Intransitive verbs, by contrast,à express action but donââ¬â¢t affect a direct object. For example, if you say ââ¬Å"Aliceà dances,â⬠the wordà dancesà is the lexical verb, but it is intransitive because it doesnââ¬â¢t require a direct object. Linking Verbs A linking verb is an important lexical verbà (such as a form ofà beà orà seem) that joins theà subjectà of a sentence to a word or phrase thatà tells something about the subject. For example,à isà functions as a linking verb in the sentence The bossà isà unhappy. Note thatà to beà verbs such as is can also serve as auxiliary verbs depending on how the sentence is constructed. In the sentence, Aliceà is helpingà Victor with his homework, isà serves as the auxiliary verb because it helps the lexical verbà helping.à Dynamic and Static Aà dynamic verb- also called an action verb- is used primarily to indicate an action, process, or sensation. An example of dynamic verbs in action is this saying uttered by Hall of Fame baseball player Willie Mays in describing the game: Theyà throwà the ball, Ià hità it. Theyà hità the ball, Ià catchà it. By contrast, a static (or stative) verbà isà used primarily to describe a state or situation.à An example would be,à Weà areà what weà believeà weà are.à Note that as in the linking verbs section, theà to beà verb- in this case,à are- can be a lexical verb, describing a state of being. Regular and Irregular A regularà verb is one that forms its tenses, especially theà past tenseà andà past participle, by adding one in the set of generally accepted standardized suffixes. Regular verbs are conjugated by adding either -d, -ed, -ing, or -s to theirà base form. Anà irregularà verb, meanwhile, does not follow the usualà rulesà for verb forms. In the sentence, ââ¬Å"Sheà looksà in the mirror,â⬠the main verbà looksà is a regular verb, Dictionary.com explains, adding that the past tense of look is looked. So in the past tense, the sentence would read, She lookedà in the mirror. In comparison, an example of irregular verbs in a sentence would be: The bridge theyà ââ¬â¹built brought traffic in both directions. The present tense of the first verb in the sentence is build, but in the past tense, it isà built. Similarly, the present tense of the second verb would beà bring,à but in the past tenseà as used in the sentence, itsà brought. Hard-Working Verbs Clearly, lexical verbs do much of the heavy lifting in English. They provide the action (intransitive and dynamic verbs), explain what is happening to various direct objects (transitive verbs), and describe states of being (static) among their many duties. Learn the lexical verbs in English and you will master the very heart of what it means to speak and write the languageà correctly, effectively, and in an engaging manner
Thursday, March 5, 2020
3 Types of Intermolecular Forces
3 Types of Intermolecular Forces Intermolecular forces or IMFs are physical forces between molecules. In contrast, intramolecular forces are forces between atoms within a single molecule. Intermolecular forces are weaker than intramolecular forces. The interaction between intermolecularà forces may be used to describeà how molecules interact with each other. The strength or weakness of intermolecular forces determines the state of matter of a substance (e.g., solid, liquid, gas) and some of the chemical properties (e.g., melting point, structure). There are three major types of intermolecular forces: London dispersion force, dipole-dipole interaction, and ion-dipole interaction. Key Takeaways: Intermolecular Forces Intermolecular forces act between molecules. In contrast, intramolecular forces act within molecules.Intermolecular forces are weaker than intramolecular forces.Examples of intermolecular forces include the London dispersion force, dipole-dipole interation, ion-dipole interaction, and van der Waals forces. Heres a closer look at these 3 intermolecular forces, with examples of each type. London Dispersion Force The London dispersion force is also known as LDF,à London forces, dispersion forces, instantaneous dipole forces, induced dipole forces, or the induced dipole-induced dipole force The London dispersion force is the weakest of the intermolecular forces.This is the force between two nonpolar molecules. The electrons of one molecule are attracted to the nucleus of the other molecule, while repelled by the other molecules electrons. A dipole is induced when the electron clouds of the molecules are distorted by the attractive and repulsive electrostatic forces. Example:à An example of London dispersion force is the interaction between two methyl (-CH3) groups. Example: Another example is the interaction between nitrogen gas (N2) and oxygen gas (O2) molecules. The electrons of the atoms are not only attracted to their own atomic nucleus, but also to the protons in the nucleus of the other atoms. Dipole-Dipole Interaction Dipole-dipole interaction occurs whenever two polar molecules get near each other. The positively charged portion of one molecule is attracted to the negatively charged portion of another molecule. Since many molecules are polar, this is a common intermolecular force. Example:à An example of dipole-dipole interaction is the interaction between two sulfur dioxide (SO2) molecules, where the sulfur atom of one molecule is attracted to the oxygen atoms of the other molecule. Example: Hââ¬â¹ydrogen bonding is considered a specific example of a dipole-dipole interaction always involving hydrogen. A hydrogen atom of one molecule is attracted to an electronegative atom of another molecule, such as an oxygen atom in water. Ion-Dipole Interaction Ion-dipole interaction occurs when an ion encounters a polar molecule. In this case, the charge of the ion determines which part of the molecule attracts and which repels. A cation or positive ion would be attracted to the negative part of a molecule and repelled by the positive part. An anion or negative ion would be attracted to the positive part of a molecule and repelled by the negative part. Example:à An example of the ion-dipole interaction is the interaction between a Na ion and water (H2O) where the sodium ion and oxygen atom are attracted to each other, while the sodium and hydrogen are repelled by each other. Van der Waals Forces Van der Waals forces are the interaction between uncharged atoms or molecules. The forces are used to explain the universal attraction between bodies, the physical adsorption of gases, and the cohesion of condensed phases. The van der Waals forces include Keesom interaction, the Debye force, and the London dispersion force. So, van der Waals forces include intermolecular forces and also some intramolecular forces. Sources Ege, Seyhan (2003). Organic Chemistry: Structure and Reactivity. Houghton Mifflin College. ISBN 0618318097. pp. 30ââ¬â33, 67.Majer, V. and Svoboda, V. (1985). Enthalpies of Vaporization of Organic Compounds. Blackwell Scientific Publications. Oxford. ISBN 0632015292.Margenau, H. and Kestner, N. (1969). Theory of Inter-molecular Forces. International Series of Monographs in Natural Philosophy. Pergamon Press, ISBN 1483119289.
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